FATHER CHRIS RILEY’S

Youth Off the Streets was greatly concerned over the recent New South Wales bush fires and the devastation caused to so many people. Learning that many fires were lit intentionally by young people was not unexpected but nevertheless a great disappointment. At the time of the bush fires, there was much debate in the media about what should be done to the people who lit the fires when they were apprehended.

In the cases of young perpetrators, many of the ideas put forward were most inappropriate for healing to take place and for the long term safety of the community.

They were inappropriate because we know that these approaches are largely ones that would humiliated, degrade and traumatise the young people involved; they would encourage the young person’s anger and violence and would ensure that they continued criminal activity once the ‘punishment’ was over.

There was also a discussion about the present use of ‘conferencing’ in dealing with juvenile fire setters. There was considerable community anger about the concept of ‘conferencing’ – which was seen by many as a soft option.

It seemed that we needed a variety of options and it is with this in mind that I have come up with this proposal.

Several of the options are:

· Conferencing is appropriate for some situations. Certainly, appropriate for first time offenders and the non-pathological fire setter (see literature review for a definition of non-pathological fire setters).

· Placing juveniles in Detention Centres would be the last resort, particularly because these Centres do not have programs in place for fire setters.

· Residential placements seemed also to be an alternative and would provide therapeutic programs that would respond to the needs of youth.

1. Bushland fire setter types.

2. ‘Cry for help” fire setter type.

3. Delinquent fire setter types.

(Descriptions of these ‘types’ and required intervention are described later in this document.)

Length of the program: preferably 12 – 18 months; however, this could be adjusted to the individual.

A preliminary to such a residential placement would be:

Process: the individual would be interviewed to assess their commitment to solving their problems. This would mean a site visit to the program and interview.

If the young person would like to accept the opportunity and the court saw this as appropriate, a one month assessment period would be entered into. This would be a significant time and would be very thorough and involved.

(see page 12 for details of assessment issues)

SECTION A: General Introduction and Overview

The primary goal of this program is to better understand the roadblocks to mental treatment for juvenile fire setters and to make recommendations to alleviate these impediments. There is little knowledge in this country about children who fire set - and so we have to turn the United States for more relevant strategies and interventions. Over the past twenty years, there has been a concerted effort in the United States to address the problem of children and fire.

It has been well established that child fire play and fire setting behaviour is a serious problem accounting for many hundreds of fires, many deaths and injuries; and millions of dollars in direct property loss every single year. In response, the Federal Government, along with several other organisations, has conducted research into and facilitated program development among the Fire Services. Much has been learned about the psychological presentation of children and the circumstances that lead to their fire use. Considerable practical experience has been acquired to better understand how to establish and conduct intervention programs to identify, assess, and educate children, especially when their fire use is primarily motivated by curiosity.

A significant percentage of children are involved in fire setting due to emotional difficulties and other serious problems. These children require more intensive interventions by mental health professionals. However, finding appropriate mental health services continues to be a challenge, even in communities where there are established programs within the Fire Service. It would be a great disservice to the efforts of the past twenty years to simply revisit the traditional psychological and sociological perspectives of why children start fires and what their environmental influences are. As mentioned above, this is well understood.

The purpose of this Program is to expand on the traditional psychological perspective of focusing on the intra-psychic workings of youth and shift to the awareness and understanding of the psychological provider themselves. This program will examine the awareness and training needs of mental health professionals and recommend treatment protocols for use with specific types of fire setters.

SECTION B: Treating the Juvenile Fire Setter and Recommended Mental Health Treatment Strategies

INTRODUCTION

Children’s involvement in fire is a multidimensional behaviour motivated by a variety of circumstances. Because of the complexity of this behaviour, mental health treatments need to be sensitive to these various motivations, in order to maximise effectiveness. This section will outline recommended treatments and attempt to prioritise methods to be utilised with particular presentations.

Paul Schwartzman is the co-author of a chapter entitled “Fire Setting” (Cole, Grolnick, Schwartzman, 1999), outlining evaluated treatment protocols for juvenile fire setters. A review of subsequent literature and feedback from therapists with experience treating juvenile fire setters indicated that the protocols presented in this text remain state of the art. These methods will be summarised in this section.

Therapists who have experience treating juvenile fire setters also recommended the utility of linking specific treatment protocols with particular types of fire setters. Dr. Kenneth Fineman authored a paper entitled “A Model for the Qualitative Analysis of Fire Deviant Behaviour” (Fineman, 1995). In this article Dr. Fineman offers recommended terms to describe different fire setter types, as well as a dynamic-behavioural model to classify them. The integration of this model, typologies and treatment protocols is believed to provide an effective mental health treatment intervention.

THE DYNAMIC-BEHAVIOURAL MODEL

The dynamic-behavioural theory is a broad-based conceptual framework designed specifically to explain fire setting behaviour. The dynamic-behavioural formulation views fire setting as an interaction between dynamic historical factors that predispose the fire setter toward a variety of maladaptive and antisocial acts, historical environmental factors that have taught and reinforced fire setting as acceptable, and immediate environmental contingencies that encourage the fire setting behaviour.

The major contribution of the dynamic-behavioural theory is that the majority of research related to describing the psychosocial characteristics of fire setting youngsters can be organised and classified utilizing this conceptual framework. Regardless of how the specific variables in dynamic-behavioural theory are defined, their common underlying feature is that they can be observed and measured to confirm or reject their hypothesised relationships to fire setting. The model tries to define variables such as personality, social and environmental factors that will predict the occurrence of fire setting behaviour.

The dynamic-behavioural theory defines the observable variables comprising each of three classes of psychological determinants:

1. Personality and individual characteristics.

2. Family and social circumstances.

3. Immediate environmental conditions.

Individual characteristics consist of demographic, physical, emotional, motivational and psychiatric variables. Social circumstances are composed of family, peer and social variables. Environmental conditions refer to events occurring immediately prior, during and after fire setting. These variables interact to produce fire setting or increase the risk of fire setting.

Types of Fire Setters.

There are many ‘types’ of fire setters listed in the literature concerning fire setting behaviour. Researchers have categorised fire setters by focusing on a variety of personality and other factors, which specify a quality of their personality or of their previously set fires. Any attempt to categorise the fire setter should serve the pragmatic purpose of helping describe that fire setter’s risk level for future fire related dangerous behaviour. Dangerousness in terms of fire setting includes behaviour that destroys property or does physical and/or emotional harm. It also concerns itself with the probability that the juvenile will set more fires. Thus, the specification of fire setter type should alert one to the characteristics of the fire setting sequence which are most salient, and thus predict fire related ‘dangerousness’ - the intent to do or likelihood of doing harm to persons or other living things, extreme property damage, or continued fire setting.

Most previously defined ‘types’ in the literature can be subsumed in one of the following types. It is important to understand that these categories are not exclusive. In fact, a fire setter may have multiple motives for his/her behaviour. The following fire setter types focus on the fire setter’s psychological state or diagnostic category, what is set on fire, or whether the fire is set as a function of the setter’s self-focus (the need to bring attention to himself/herself) or other-focus (the need to use fire to direct public attention elsewhere).

Non-pathological Juvenile Fire Setters:

Several types of non-pathological juvenile fire setters have been identified. Specific to this discussion is the curiosity or accidental type of juvenile fire setter.

Curious (or accidental type)

The most common profile describes children who act primarily out of curiosity and do not developmentally understand the consequences of their behaviour. The few studies that have examined representative samples of children converge on this point. The majority of children who start fires do so out of experimentation and may not have other psychological problems. Children motivated exclusively by curiosity tend to be young, primarily between 5 and 10 years of age, and to be involved in only one reported fire incident.

While this curiosity-driven fire play is apparently not pathological, it is nevertheless potentially dangerous and a concern. There are familial and environmental factors that predict whether children engage in fire play and serve as guides to preventive intervention. Access to ignition materials, momentary lapses in supervision, the perception that they would not be disciplined if they were caught playing with fire, and premature exposure to and responsibility for activities involving fire are all associated with curiosity fire play. Teenagers trying to conduct science experiments frequently fall into this group.

Pathological Juvenile Fire Setters

Several types of pathological juvenile fire setters have been identified. Specific to this discussion are the cry for help type, the delinquent type, the severely disturbed type, the cognitively impaired type, the socio-cultural type, and the bushland fire setter type.

The Cry for Help Type

The cry for help type includes children of all ages. These juveniles consciously or sub- consciously wish to bring attention to an intolerable life stress. This may be an intrapersonal dysfunction such as depression or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. It could also be associated with an interpersonal dysfunction such as family stress and dysfunction, stressful life events, separation and divorce, and remarriage. This type of fire setting is more likely to continue without intervention. Physical and sexual abuse and chronic neglect are frequently associated with recidivism. This type has a good prognosis for treatment. Included in the cry for help type is the juvenile would-be hero type.

The Delinquent Type

The delinquent type usually involves adolescents between the ages of 11 and 15.

Typically, their fire setting is part of a larger constellation of conduct and aggression problems. An interest in vandalism and hate crimes is noteworthy. As juveniles manifesting this type, though frequently showing little empathy for others and little conscience, they usually avoid harming others with fire. Significant property damage is common. In this group, fire setting behaviour is more easily extinguished than other personality and behavioural problems, which usually accompany the fire setting.

The Severely Disturbed Type

The severely disturbed type (includes the sensory reinforcement controlled type and the self-harm type). This disturbed group includes the paranoid and psychotic for whom the fixation on fire may be a major factor in the development of their mental disorder. ‘Sensory reinforcement controlled’ describes those for whom the sensory aspects of the fire are sufficiently reinforcing to cause fires to be frequently set. The reinforcement histories of many suggest an early fixation on fire. The willingness to harm is difficult to predict in this group. Clinical experience shows that even with the psychotic there is a tendency to avoid harming others. However, the degree of reinforcement control with the pyromaniac (DSM-IV clinical diagnosis), a sub-type of the ‘sensory reinforcement controlled’ (usually obtaining sexual or sensual reinforcement) is often powerful enough to allow significant harm to occur. (The experience of clinicians indicates that those who set fires for sexual or sensual reinforcement include less than 2 percent of juveniles and adults who set fires) The self -harm type uses fire to harm or kill himself. Prognosis is guarded with this group, the degree to which fire is a significant part of a delusion or the offender's intrapsychic life being a deciding factor.

The Cognitively Impaired Type

The cognitively impaired type (including the developmentally disabled and the organically impaired types). This group, though tending to avoid intentional harm, lacks good judgment. Significant property damage is common. Prognostically, they are good therapy candidates. The organic group includes those persons whose cognitions or ability to control impulses are significantly affected by their neurological or medical state. Also included in this group are persons with severe learning disabilities and those who were affected by fetal alcohol syndrome or by the drugs taken by their mother during pregnancy.

The Sociocultural Type

The sociocultural type (including the uncontrolled mass hysteria type, the attention to cause type, the religious type and the satanic type). This category includes those arsonists that set fires primarily for the support they get for doing so by groups within their communities, such as the southern woodburners. The southern woodburners are a community-supported group who go to classes and are taught to set fires. Usually, they set Crown lands on fire and avoid local lands. They allegedly want to eliminate pests in the bush. Also included are those who set fires in the midst of civil unrest and are either enraged and enticed by the activity of others and follow suit, or set fires with deliberation in order to call attention to the righteousness of their cause. Most community-supported fire setters avoid harming others, but cause significant property loss. Those involved in uncontrolled mass violence frequently loose control and harm others, though initially the intent to do so may not be present. Those setting fires to focus on a cause may avoid harming others depending on the history of violence associated with their cause. Most are amenable to treatment.

The Bushland Fire Setter Type

The bushland fire setter type (may include elements of 5 and 6 above). Includes those who set fires in forests, bush and other open areas. These offenders set fires with the intent that the fire spread to inhabited areas or simply don't care if this happens. Injuries to humans or animals are not often considered. They cause significant property loss. They see themselves as perpetual victims of society and wish to pay society back. They are at risk for continued fire setting, but are treatable if caught. This type must be carefully evaluated as this type of fire setting is fairly common in some parts of the country, and in others suggests a high level of dangerousness.

The manner in which variables in the dynamic-behavioural model interact defines the profile type to which the fire setter belongs. Understanding how the variables interact also allows one to more easily predict fire-related dangerousness and to choose the most effective manner of intervention. Choosing the most effective manner of intervention refers not only to selecting a particular technique, but selecting the most relevant, vulnerable and outcome dependent point in the fire setting sequence to modify.

ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT

Fire setting behaviour is typically not a presentation that most mental health professionals assess or treat. If a mental health professional is treating a fire setter they may not be aware of the behaviour because the information was not offered or requested. If the therapist is aware of the fire setting behaviour, it is not focused on but assumed to be just another behaviour in a constellation of many and therefore not specifically treated. Historically, the mental health profession has not received systematic training concerning fire setting.

Addressing the Issue

Fire setting needs to be specifically addressed clinically. Pathological fire setting is likely to continue if the underlying motivations or reinforcers are not specifically identified and treated. This is the fundamental difference in treating juveniles with fire setting behaviour in contrast to others. Beyond this initial intervention, the tools that most mental professionals possess are well suited to this population. The intent of this section is to highlight the critical assessment methods for juvenile fire setters and their associated treatments.

Assessment Strategies and Issues

Because fire setting is associated with such a broad array of child and family problems, there needs to be a comprehensive, structured interview conducted initially with the juvenile. As mentioned above, fire setter types can range from curiosity, which does not require mental health intervention to more profoundly learning disabled or emotionally impaired. The interview will enhance the likelihood that if a pathology is present, it will be discovered.

Given the strong relationship between fire setting and family dysfunction, it is also recommended that a comprehensive family assessment be conducted. A home visit is helpful. It allows the direct observation of the adequacy of the environment, parent-child interactions, and terms of availability of ignition materials. If the mental health professional is not in a position to conduct a home visit, Fire Service or other relevant agency reports should be provided to inform this assessment.

As in the individual assessment, a structured interview with parents to assess family stresses, discipline practices, parent observations of child behaviour, and other measures of family circumstances will better inform the process of determining risk and necessary interventions.

As outlined in the dynamic-behavioural model, the particulars of the fire incident are determining the type of fire setter and prioritising interventions. Careful attention to the antecedents of the fire, the fire itself and the child and parent response to the fire are essential. Details describing the location of the fire, what was burned, who was there, the ignition source and how was it obtained will all help to determine the primary motivation and future risk.

The following typical scenario describes the cognitions, behaviours and feeling states of a pathological fire setter in the sequence in which they most frequently occur.

1. The fire setter, based on his early experiences and reinforcement history, is predisposed toward the maladaptive use of fire.

2. The fire setter, predisposed to a variety of maladaptive behaviours, undergoes a crisis that lowers stress tolerance and increases impulsivity.

3. The fire setter feels victimised by the perpetrator of the crisis, if not by society at large.

4. This crisis may create a specific motive (i.e., the need to obtain relief from anger or jealousy or the completion of revenge).

5. The fire setter considers setting a fire.

6. The fire setter previews successful images of fire setting, thus reducing anxiety/guilt, which might be called forth the first time a fire is attempted.

7. The fire setter makes a decision to start a fire.

8. The fire setter makes a conscious decision to destroy property.

9. The fire setter gathers tools for ignition.

10. The fire setter justifies his behaviour before starting the fire. Accompanying his cognitive distortions and excuses is an affective state (frequently anger) which makes the justifications more acceptable. Delusions of invulnerability may occur at this time.

11. The fire setter starts a fire.

12. The fire setter continues to self-justify, even after the fire has started. New emotional states may occur, i.e., the feeling of elation and heightened sensitivity, replacing anger. At this time pleasure may be generated by the fire's destructiveness or the perception of power over others. The fire setter continues to dwell upon his invulnerability .

13. The fire setter continues to justify the fire, even after it is over. Affective states accompanying cognitions may vary from euphoria to a calm, placid state. At this time the fire setter continues his perceptions of invulnerability, telling himself that he will not get caught now, and that he will not get caught in the future even if he repeats the act.

14. The fire setter shows little remorse and continues feeling superoptimistic about future fire-related escapades.

Fineman has developed structured forms specifically for mental health professionals (See Figure 2, page 19) and Fire Service professionals based on the dynamic-behavioural model (Fineman, 1997,1988, 1988a, 1988b, 1981, 1979). Other practitioners such as Kolko (Kolko, 1994) have also devised assessment forms to assist in the structured assessment of the child, family, and fire event(s).

Treatment Issues

Mental health professionals are accustomed to working independently. It is imperative that a relationship be maintained with the Fire Department and Police Department when working with juvenile fire setters. Both organisations are important sources of information regarding the child, family and the fire incident. These members of the community also have knowledge of additional fire involvement or other risk behaviours not offered in the therapeutic setting.

The Fire Department also can provide assistance in the intervention process by providing well-targeted fire safety education. The mental health professional must prepare special waivers to allow the type of contact necessary to provide comprehensive treatment. Regardless of the seriousness of the fire incident or motivation, fire safety education must be part of any intervention. If the referral to mental health originated with the Fire Service, an educational intervention may have already been conducted. If </